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Naqš-i Rustam
Overview of Naqš-i Rustam	Naqš-i Rustam (*Nupistaš*?) is situated some five kilometers northwest of Persepolis, the capital of the ancient Achaemenid empire. As is shown by a pre-Achaemenid relief and several old graves, Naqš-i Rustam was already a place of some importance when king Darius I the Great (522-486) ordered his monumental tomb to be carved into the cliff. Later, three Achaemenid tombs and Sasanian reliefs were added. Pictures: Achaemenid age; Sasanian age. Satellite photo: go here.
Darius' tomb	Darius' tomb is well-known for the king's "autobiography", which is contained in two inscriptions (DNa and DNb). The central thought is that he wanted to rule according to justice: "It is not my desire that a man should do harm, nor is it my desire that he goes unpunished when he does harm". Later, similar royal rock tombs were added. Because they carry no inscriptions, they can not be identified with any certainty, but they must obviously have belonged to Darius' son and successor Xerxes (486-465), his son Artaxerxes I Makrocheir (465-424) and his grandson Darius II Nothus (423-404). Each tomb could contain 3 to 9 people. The later Achaemenid kings, Artaxerxes II Mnemon, Artaxerxes III Ochus and Darius III Codomannus (404-358, 358-338 and 336-330) were probably buried in tombs at Persepolis.
	In front of the tombs is a small tower, which is known as the Ka'bah-i Zardusht (Zarathustra's ka'bah - the real ka'bah being the famous monument in Mecca). Probably, this tower was used to keep the holy fire or books (e.g., the Avesta). There was a garden near the tombs and tower. Two kilometers south of Naqš-i Rustam the remains of an unfinished building can be seen. This may or may not have been the base of the tomb of Cambyses, which was similar in design to the tomb of his father, Cyrus the Great, at Pasargadae.
Philip (kneeling), Valerian (standing), and Shapur (relief from Naqš-i Rustam)	After the fall of the Achaemenid empire, Naqš-i Rustam remained important to the Persians. After 260 CE, the Sasanian king Shapur I had a monumental relief cut out in the rock, showing how he made Philippus Arabs ruler of the Roman empire and received the defeated Roman emperor Valerian. Other reliefs were added by Shapur's successors. They can be found here. In the Middle ages, the Persians believed that the legendary hero Rustam (well-known from Firdausi's Shahname) had used the place as his dance floor, which explains the name Naqš-i Rustam, "the carvings by Rustam".

Naqš-i Rustam (2)
	Unless otherwise indicated, pictures on this page © Marco Prins and Jona Lendering. Photos can be downloaded and used for non-commercial purposes, but you have to acknowledge Livius. The first page of pictures can be found here.
	The investiture of king Ardašir I (224?-241). To the right, the relief of Bahram II. Ardašir was the son of a Zoroastrian high priest from Istakhr, immediately north of Persepolis, where the ancient cults of the Achaemenid Empire were continued. Now, when Ardašir revolted against his Parthian overlord, he developed a new royal ideology. He more or less admitted that he had been rebel and had betrayed his master Artabanus V, but he had done so because the supreme god Ahuramazda had wanted him to do so. The relief of Ardašir is, therefore, the legitimization of the new, Sasanian dynasty. The site is logical: close to the ancient capital of the Achaemenids.
	To the right, we see Ahuramazda, who hands over a ring to Ardašir, on the left. This ring, called cydaris, is the symbol of power. Both men are seated on horses and crush defeated enemies. To the left is an attendant with a fly-whisk; this man is also seen on other reliefs of Ardašir (e.g., at Naqš-e Rajab).
	Ardašir, taking the ring with his right hand and saluting the god with his left fist and pointed index finger. This gesture can be seen on many Sasanian rock reliefs. His crown has a rather unusual globe, which is called korymbos. This relief is very important, because it marks the beginning of the Sasanian royal art. Comparable reliefs by Ardašir are found at nearby Naqš-i Radjab and faraway Firuzabad. Later kings ordered identical reliefs to be made.
	Ahuramazda. From the holy book of Zoroastrianism, the Avesta, we know that the bundle of sacred twigs in his left hand is called the barsom. When this relief was cut, this symbol of religious power already had a very long history; they are already depicted on Achaemenid reliefs (e.g., Dascylium). Behind Ahuramazda's head is a ribbon, usually called diadem, a symbol of power.
	The two crushed enemies. The horse of Ahuramazda, right, tramples on the evil spirit, Ahriman (the Zoroastrian devil); Ardašir has defeated the last Parthian king, Artabanus V. His former dignity is indicated by the fact that he still wears his diadem.

	The triumph relief of Shapur I (241-272), the most famous Sasanian rock relief, very close to the tomb of Darius I the Great. It shows how he has defeated two Roman emperors. (A more elaborate version of this relief is at Bishapur.) In 244, the Romans invaded Mesopotamia and besieged the important city Ctesiphon, but the war lasted long, and the Roman emperor Gordian III was replaced by Philippus Arabs, who concluded a peace treaty with Shapur.
	Philip paid a ransom and was happy to return alive, and Shapur could present this as if Philip owed the throne to him. The new emperor is kneeling in front of the king's horse. The standing man is the emperor Valerian, who was taken captive in 260. Shapur takes him by the hand to show that he has been seized.
	Behind the king is his high priest, Kartir, saluting the king with the gesture of the fist and index finger. This relief is an addition from the reign of Bahram II (276-293).

	Kartir was able to make Zoroastrianism the state religion of the empire and was responsible for the persecution of Christians, Jews, and Buddhists, and instigated the death of the prophet Mani, thus giving Manichaeism its first martyr. The scissor-shaped emblem on his cap allows us to identify Kartir.
	The two emperors again. Valerian, standing, was not the only one to be taken captive. His soldiers, many of them belonging to the Sixth legion Ferrata, were sent to Shushtar, where they built a bridge. They may have also been employed at Bishapur.
	The glorious great Sasanian king of kings.
	And another picture, a cameo, showing the same triumph: the king (right) seizes the emperor (left).

Naqš-i Rustam (3)
	Unless otherwise indicated, pictures on this page © Marco Prins and Jona Lendering. Photos can be downloaded and used for non-commercial purposes, but you have to acknowledge Livius. The first page of pictures can be found here.
	This picture shows king Bahram II (276-293). His hands rest on his giant sword, showing that he is the man in charge of the kingdom. From the right, three imperial grandees show their devotion to the king. On the left, three people with diadems look at Bahram.
	These people are probably identical to Bahram's relatives Bahram II (276-293), Shapur I (241-272), and Ardašir (224-241), the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. Probably Bahram II needed to show himself with his ancestors, and with his sword so prominently displayed, because his position was hardly secure at all.
	The three grandees. The man to the left may be identical to the high priest Kartir.
	One of the courtiers. The badge on his cap is not known from another relief.
	Bahram's relief (right) is next to Ardašir's (left). It replaces an older, Elamite relief (discussed above).

	Equestrian relief of Bahram II, immediately below tomb 4 (Darius II Nothus?). His enemy wears a Roman helmet and may be an emperor.

	Double questrian victory monument of Bahram II, right below the tomb of Darius I the Great. The kings is recognizable because there are eagle's wings on his helmet. In the upper register, he throws an enemy from his horse. His standard bearer occupies the left part of this scene.
	In the lower register, the king fights against another enemy, which is seen here. On both reliefs, a dead enemy is trampled upon by the king's horse.

Naqš-i Rustam (4)
	Unless otherwise indicated, pictures on this page © Marco Prins and Jona Lendering. Photos can be downloaded and used for non-commercial purposes, but you have to acknowledge Livius. The first page of pictures can be found here.
	Investiture of Narseh (293-303). The king, the second large figure from the right, receives the cydaris ring from a female figure. A young prince is standing between them; to the left are imperial grandees.
	Narseh, a younger son of the great Shapur I, had come to power by a coup d'état, which may explain that he does not receive the cydaris from Ahuramazda, but from a women. We do not know who she is. It has been assumed that she is the goddess Anahita, but the king does not greet her as befits a worshipper in front of a deity. It has been argued that the lady is not a goddess at all, but queen Shapurdokhtak. The identity of the prince is less problematic: it must be the king's son Hormizd II, who succeeded his father.
	Behind the king, we can see several important courtiers, making the gesture with the fist and index finger that shows respect for the king. There is no triumph relief of Narseh, which comes as no surprise, because he was defeated by the Romans and forced to give up parts of Armenia. After the reign of Shapur I, the Sasanian empire was weak and divided, which can also be deduced by the rapid succession of kings.
	One of the courtiers.

	The equestrian victory of Hormizd II (303-309) is immediately below Achaemenid tomb 3 (Artaxerxes?) and a vanished relief of Shapur II.
	It shows how king Hormizd unhorses an enemy, who can propably be identified with king Papak of Armenia.

	Once, there was a relief of a seated king Shapur II (309-379) and several courtiers between the relief of Hormizd II and Achaemenid tomb 3. It is very damaged.
	An unfinished relief.

	A charming little lion in the neighborhood of the relief of Narseh.
	Final overview. From left to right, the Kaba, tomb 4 (Darius II Nothus), 3 (Artaxerxes I Makrocheir), and 1 (Darius I the Great), the relief of the investiture of Narseh, an autobus, tomb 2 (Xerxes).